Posted on behalf of Dr. Santosh Kumar Mishra (Ph. D.), Technical Assistant, Population Education Resource Centre (PERC), Department of Continuing and Adult Education and Extension Work, S. N. D. T. Women's University (SNDTWU), India. 

Note: Views expressed below are of the contributor AND NOT of the PERC, SNDTWU where Dr. Santosh Kumar Mishra is currently employed. Major portion of the contribution presented below have been drawn from data published on web sites (which have been quoted in the text).

1. What are the challenges that hinder women’s political participation and representation at the local governance and decision-making level? Are they any different from the challenges women face at the national level?

1.1. What are the challenges that hinder women’s political participation and representation at the local governance and decision-making level?

Obstacles to women’s political participation: Women around the world at every socio-political level find themselves under-represented in parliament and far removed from decision-making levels. Research data suggest that in the year 2005, women hold barely 16% of parliamentary seats around the world. The factors that hamper or facilitate women’s political participation vary with level of socio-economic development, geography, culture, and the type of political system. Women themselves are not a homogeneous group; there are major differences between them, based on:

• class,
• race,
• ethnicity,
• cultural background, and
• education.

The exclusion of women from decision-making bodies limits the possibilities for entrenching the principles of democracy in a society, hindering economic development and discouraging the attainment of gender equality. If men monopolize the political process, passing laws which affect society at large, the decision – making process does not always balance the interests of the male and female populations. As noted in the Millennium Development Goals (MGDs), women’s equal participation with men in power and decision making is part of their fundamental right to participate in political life, and at the core of gender equality and women’s empowerment. Women have to be active participants in determining development agendas. Women who want to enter politics find that the political, public, cultural and social environment is often unfriendly or even hostile to them. Even a quick glance at the current composition of political decision makers in any region provides evidence that women still face numerous obstacles in articulating and shaping their own interests (Source: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d998/eb3ddb02ef10d7a1b4f1d0fd15dbc95c557f.pdf, accessed on February 03, 2018). 

Obstacles to women’s participation in decision – making: The barriers that women and girls face to their meaningful political inclusion occur and must be addressed on three levels:

1. individual,
2. institutional, and
3. socio-cultural.

While change may not happen simultaneously on each level, all three must be addressed in order to create an enabling environment for women to reach equal and sustainable political participation. Breaking down the barriers and creating opportunities for women at each level calls for a collaborative effort among states, civil society, and the international community. Each of these stakeholders, from lawmakers to activists to religious or traditional leaders and family members, can play a different role in addressing different challenges for women’s participation. Due to discriminatory laws, institutional and cultural barriers, and disproportionate access to quality education, healthcare, and resources, women worldwide continue to be marginalized in the political arena. The path forward needs to ensure and support women’s right to be involved in decision-making and political processes, and should be rooted in the following solutions:

• Introduce gender quotas as transitional mechanisms;
• Promote women’s rights, safety and participation during humanitarian crises, conflict prevention, and peace – building processes;
• Promote women’s rights and participation in conflict prevention, mitigation of humanitarian crises, and peace – building processes;
• Include young women and women within marginalized populations;
• Create training and leadership pathways that are gender-sensitive;
• Foster inclusivity in leadership, civic engagement, and decision-making in public and private spheres;
• Ensure political environments are free from discrimination and violence; and
• Ensure recognition of women in decision-making capacities

Evidence suggests that when women are elected to political positions, they can make a difference for girls and women and strongly impact legislation. In many cases, women are more likely to pursue inclusive policies and respond to constituent concerns. they tend to push for positive change around health, community wellbeing, poverty reduction, and family welfare, and are more likely to strive to reach a consensus on policies.

When well-designed and properly implemented, quotas can be effective, temporary measures to increase women’s access to decision-making positions while transitioning to the point where a gender balance in political leadership can be achieved and sustained. Quotas can be adapted to fit a variety of political system, structures and contexts, and while they may not work in every situation, they can be particularly crucial within electoral systems that are not conducive to equal participation. Quotas often address an institutional barrier, whether within political parties or at a national level, and ideally, rather than placing the onus on individual women to succeed, they demand action from institutional actors and power-holders. In the 46 countries where women represented more than 30% of elected legislators as of June 2016, 40 countries had some form of quota system—either a legislative candidate quota or reserved seats (Source: http://womendeliver.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Deliver_For_Good_Brief_8_09.17.17.pdf, accessed on February 03, 2018).

1.2. Are they any different from the challenges women face at the national level? At the micro level, obstacles that hinder women’s political participation and representation at the local governance (including in decision-making process) are same as which prevent their participation at the national level. However, at the macro level, challenges may be different in view of structure and type of political system, including legislative provisions.  

2. What are the good practices that help advance women’s political participation and representation at the local level? What is the role political parties in supporting women’s engagement in local politics?

2.1. What are the good practices that help advance women’s political participation and representation at the local level? In many countries women remain particularly under‑represented in local government and it is often the case that the stereotypes at the local community level are stronger. Action is need­ed to tackle this challenge and encourage more women to enter local politics. Mayoral and city council positions equip women with the skills nec­essary for higher levels of public office and serve to launch careers in regional and national politics. In view of this, initiatives focusing on the local lev­el, mobilising women to take political mandates in their own cities are particularly relevant, like pro­grammes developed in Germany and Portugal (Source: https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0ahUKEwiEheLEg4nZAhWHrI8KHW6AANEQFggmMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Feige.europa.eu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2Fmh0415104enn_0.pdf&usg=AOvVaw0eiuZG4rGaqIUWn71jO434, Accessed on February 03, 2018).

2.2. What is the role political parties in supporting women’s engagement in local politics? Participation in electoral processes involves much more than just voting. Political participation derives from the freedom to speak out, assemble and associate; the ability to take part in the conduct of public affairs; and the opportunity to register as a candidate, to campaign, to be elected and to hold office at all levels of government. Under international standards, men and women have an equal right to participate fully in all aspects of the political process. In practice, however, it is often harder for women to exercise this right. In post-conflict countries there are frequently extra barriers to women’s participation, and special care is required to ensure their rights are respected in this regard.

Political parties are among the most important institutions affecting women’s political participation. In most countries, parties determine which candidates are nominated and elected and which issues achieve national prominence. The role of women in political parties is therefore a key determinant of their prospects for political empowerment, particularly at the national level. Because political parties are so influential in shaping women’s political prospects, Governments and international organizations seeking to advance the participation of women in elections justifiably tend to focus on the role of political parties.   

Political participation extends beyond parties, however. Women can also become involved in certain aspects of the electoral process through independent action—particularly at the local level—and by joining civil society organizations. Some women in post-conflict countries have gained political experience by participating in non-elected transitional assemblies. Women’s networks, trade unions, non-governmental organizations, and the media can all provide avenues for women’s political participation (Source: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/publication/Chapter3.htm, accessed on February 03, 2018).

3. Do you know of any programmes or structures that support women elected at the local level to become leaders at the national level? Please share examples.

3.1. Do you know of any programmes or structures that support women elected at the local level to become leaders at the national level? Although women can vote and run for public office in nearly every country, in 2013, they accounted for only 21 percent of parliamentarians worldwide and served as head of state or head of government in twenty-four countries. Talented women who would make effective public leaders are excluded from the pool of available candidates due to financial, social and legal barriers, to the detriment of their communities. When women hold public office, they prioritize public goods that are of concern to women, including water, infrastructure, sanitation, roads, education and health.

With female political leaders present, female citizens engage more in civic discussion, women and minorities are more likely to report crimes committed against them, and adolescent girls’ career aspirations and educational attainment increase while their time spent on household chores decreases. Because of gendered behavioral expectations, women face different political challenges and opportunities than men. When they perceive female politicians as power-seeking, voters react negatively with feelings of moral outrage. Although women’s leadership is imperative for their communities, particularly for other women and adolescent girls, some norms inhibit women’s political participation.

Current research posits numerous explanations for the lack of women in leadership roles, including gender discrimination, lack of female role models, aversion to competitive environments, family responsibilities and social norms. We can address these challenges through structural changes to political frameworks and social changes in how we expect women and leaders to behave, which can give way to increasing women’s political aspirations. Following interventions will specifically support women elected at the local level to become leaders at the national level (Source: https://wappp.hks.harvard.edu/politics, accessed on February 03, 2018):

• Gender Quotas: Power-seeking behavior, even when unintentional, hurts female political candidates but helps male candidates. Seat reservations for female elected officials make communities more likely to associate women with leadership and vote for women in the future. Reserving political seats for women increases female electoral participation and improves governments' responsiveness to women’s policy concerns. Yet, in the corporate sector, quotas have demonstrated mixed outcomes. In Norway, quotas for corporate boards increased gender diversity, but imposed costs on firms and shareholders, while another study found that quotas, or affirmative action, increased women's willingness to compete in competitive mixed-gender environments, closing the gender gap and resulting in the more qualified candidates, men and women alike, applying for competitive positions. 
• Modeling Female Leadership: Women in leadership positions have a multiplying effect: Repeated exposure to female elected officials improves perceptions of female leaders and leads to future electoral gains for women. Female role models in leadership positions help adolescent girls to aspire to leadership. 
• Political Training Programs: Mentorship, confidence building, media training and political campaign education are all effective tools to increase adolescent girls’ and women’s political aspirations and efficacy despite structural obstacles.

There are programmes or structures that support women elected at the local level to become leaders at the national level. There is one programme example of Women in Power (WiP) project. The Center of Excellence on Democracy, Human Rights and Governance (DRG Center) of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) launched the WiP project to better understand its women’s political empowerment programming; to improve upon existing measures of women’s political leadership; and to bring donors, practitioners and academics together for mutual learning to advance work in this field.

The WiP project generated substantial insights and best-practice strategies to increase the supply of women with the skills, experience and will to run for and serve in public office; strengthen the demand for women politicians and leaders; or both. Supply-side strategies provide insights on how USAID and its partners can more effectively support women leaders and candidates, close campaign finance gaps and enhance elected women’s leadership and policymaking skills. Demand-side strategies highlight practices that support the inclusion of women participants in political transitions and foster women’s access to institutions that include political parties, electoral management bodies and legislatures. Dual supply-and-demand strategies propose ways that USAID and its partners can address deep-rooted sociocultural barriers to women’s political empowerment by mainstreaming gender in civic and voter education, using the media as a force for change and combating violence against women in politics.

The WiP project also piloted a new tool for measuring women’s political empowerment: the Diamond Leadership Model (DLM). It adds to existing measures of women’s political leadership, most of which focus only on the percentage of women in a national legislature or executive cabinet, but do not capture variation in women’s representation across government sectors. The DLM closes this data gap by measuring women’s political leadership horizontally (legislative, executive, judicial and security sectors) and vertically (leadership positions at high, middle and low levels) to create a country’s Women’s Power Score (WPS). The project piloted the new model in 40 developing countries where USAID works. The DLM pilot study found that women’s political leadership is often highly uneven across government sectors; representation in one sector does not guarantee women’s leadership in other parts of the government. It also demonstrated that while much of this data was relatively easy to access, security sector data was not often publicly available and was the most challenging to collect.

The WiP project led to comprehensive and cutting-edge learning related to women’s political empowerment and identified multiple areas for improvement. A key starting point for USAID and its partners is to develop a clearer definition of women’s political empowerment that goes beyond the physical representation of women in government and includes their ability to influence public policy development and implementation. The project proposes a new working definition of women’s political empowerment, which includes: the equal participation, representation and leadership of women within government institutions, political parties and civically engaged organizations; women’s free exercise of the authority inherent in those positions; and the regular creation, implementation and enforcement of laws and policies that address women’s rights, positions and priorities.

Clarifying the meaning of women’s political empowerment is a necessary first step to advancing a more holistic approach to programming. The WiP project also highlighted a clear need for development practitioners to adopt longer-term and context-specific programming focused on increasing women’s political empowerment during all phases of the electoral and governance cycle. This includes looking at other government sectors beyond the legislature and paying closer attention to sub-national as well as national levels of government. It also requires allocating dedicated resources to support women’s political empowerment programming and developing better indicators and reporting systems to measure their impact. Finally, the project identifies areas where more robust and intentional collaboration among donors, implementing partners and academics could foster better data collection, improve shared learning, contribute to more successful programming and ultimately lead to more women empowered to serve in public office (https://www.usaid.gov/documents/2496/women-power-summary-report:  accessed on February 03, 2018).

3.2. Please share examples. Following two examples in support of programmes (or structures) that enable women elected to become leaders can be presented:

• Example – 1: Doubling the Proportion of Women Parliamentarians in Senegal: In 2010, after long-term efforts by civil society and the national cross-party women’s network, Senegal adopted legislation calling for women to be guaranteed seats in all elective bodies at every level of  government. It set mandatory stipulations for absolute gender parity by requiring political parties to alternate one man and one women on the lists of candidates they submitted, or risk having their candidates rejected outright. In preparation for the 2012 elections, the government, along with civil society and UN Women, launched an awareness campaign and a training program on the electoral process to educate and encourage female candidates. The outcome of the 2012 elections resulted in a near balance between men and women in the National Assembly—a tangible shift toward gender parity and democracy (Source: http://womendeliver.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Deliver_For_Good_Brief_8_09.17.17.pdf, accessed on February 03, 2018).
• Example – 2: The Peace Table Project: As the Asia-Pacific focus of the Women at the Peace Table project, Indonesia has made great efforts to attain gender balance in peace negotiations through a participatory process. Through convening actors from government and civil society, the project has yielded positive dialogue around ways to develop sounder and more gender-inclusive policies for peace – building. From these meetings, a report, Women at the Indonesian Peace Table: Enhancing the Contributions of Women to Conflict Resolution, was released, outlining the positive effects of women in leadership roles. As a follow-up, training sessions were conducted to address the relationship between women, peace, and security (Source: http://womendeliver.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Deliver_For_Good_Brief_8_09.17.17.pdf, accessed on February 03, 2018). 

4. What can local government do to achieve gender equality and empower rural women and girls?

Local government is the sphere of government that is closest to communities. The services that are provided by municipalities to communities can make a significant change in not only the condition, but also position of women and men, as well as play a dynamic role in redressing past racial and gender imbalances in communities. It is local government’s moral and legal responsibility to engage in a gender equality approach in all its policies, programmes and projects in order to ensure fairness in the treatment of women and men. Given ingrained disparities, equal treatment of women and men is insufficient as a strategy for gender equality. Specific measures must be developed to identify and remove the underlying causes of discrimination in policies, laws, procedures, beliefs, practices and attitudes that maintain gender inequality (Source: https://www.westerncape.gov.za/text/2004/8/draft_gender_policy_updated_july04.pdf, Accessed on February 03, 2018). Efforts have been made at international level to improve the lives of women. This has been through adoption of international instruments and programmes of action aimed at committing governments to empower women in their countries. Among these is the Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), which was adopted by the UN general assembly as the International Bill of Women Rights in 1979 and came into force in 1981 (Source: https://www.actionaid.org.uk/sites/default/files/doc_lib/123_1_reality_grassroot_uganda.pdf, Accessed on February 03, 2018).

Posted on befalf of Agripinner Nandhego, Programme Specialist, Political Participation and Leadership, UN Women Uganda

What are the challenges that hinder women’s political participation and representation at the local governance and decision-making level? Are they any different from the challenges women face at the national level? 

1. Low levels of literacy: The literacy levels for women at the lower local government level are usually much lower given the high poverty levels that do not enable them to access good schools but also the strong cultural beliefs that do not favour girls’ education in rural areas. This limits women from contesting for some leadership positions where there is a set academic level requirement.
2. Lack of finance resources means that women are sometimes not able to raise the required funds to raise nomination fees and money to run an effective campaign. Elections by design need money for one to set up the required structures to manage a campaign, create visibility and network with colleagues which are key elements for success of any campaign.
3. Lack of support from family members including the spouse for women intending to participate in elections demotivates some women from standing for positions. In patriarchal societies men still exert a lot of influence on their wives and in extreme cases they are refused to contest for elective positions because this is perceived as challenging the power of the man in the home. Sometimes their movement is controlled with claims that women might become promiscuous once they are given liberty to move out of the home and in such a situation they cannot effectively participate in decision making bodies.
4. Negative cultural perceptions and attitudes about women in leadership: In patriarchal societies there is always a belief that public space is not meant for women and that by nature they cannot make good leaders. These perceptions are stronger at the lower levels making it very hard for women to contest and take up leadership at these levels. The few cases where women have been able to break though is when there are temporally measures like Uganda which has legislated 1/3 representation for women in local councils. In such cases for positions where women have to contest for direct seats with men their participation goes down.

What are the good practices that help advance women’s political participation and representation at the local level? What is the role of political parties in supporting women’s engagement in local politics? 

1. Women candidate trainings: In Uganda UN women usually supports partners to map out aspiring women candidates and train them in campaign management, public speaking, media engagement among other skills. These trainings enable the women to build self-confidence to be able to address campaign rallies and also overcome some of the challenges that come with campaigns. Through such trainings women have been able to contest and win seats even in situations where they are contesting with men. Such trainings are usually conducted 1-2 years before elections to enable the women to perfect the skills.
2. Community sensitizations: Aware of the negative cultural perceptions against women participation in leadership CSOs in Uganda with UN women support have been conducting community awareness sessions to sensitize people about the importance of women participation in decision making. This to an extent helps to change some of the negative perceptions to enable women successfully to take up leadership. Prior to the last elections held in Uganda in 2016, we supported a media campaign on TV which involved dialogues on women leadership in a commuter taxi code named ‘minibuz’. Follow up assessment of this program revealed that many people had been reached and there was a positive impact on their perception of women leadership
3. Set up temporally quotas for women: Temporally special measures in the form of reserved seats for women can help increase women participation. The local Government Act of Uganda provides for 1/3 representation of women at the local level and this has contributed to the increased representation of women at that level (45.7%). It is important to note that in positions where there is no affirmative action policy like Chairperson of a district the representation is 1%.

What can local government do to achieve gender equality and empower rural women and girls?

Local governments can support achievement of gender equality by engendering their budgets and plans to offer gender responsive education services for example. This will enable more girls to enrol and stay in school which will enable them offer meaningful service to their communities in future. 

Posted on behalf of Abosede George-Ogan, Chief Facilitator at WomeninPoliticsNG -- an online platform to encourage, engage, equip and empower women, especially young women, to get involved and participate in politics in Nigeria. 

1. What are the challenges that hinder women’s political participation and representation at the local governance and decision-making level? Are they any different from the challenges women face at the national level?

In the Nigerian society, women face myriads of challenges that have stood in the way of their progress; not only in politics but in their social and corporate life. Some of these challenges are as a result of how the society is structured to favour men. Nigerian women have encountered a number of problems while venturing into politics. There is a large scale of discrimination from the men folk, both in voting for candidates and in allocating political offices. A major factor that have hindered women participation in local governance is culture - patriarchy culture. African societies believe that it's the men's world and women should listen while men take the lead. Some of the purveyors  of this mentality have taken solace from religions and have deeply situated their beliefs in Religious teachings. This has constituted itself to be a set back for women participation in politics. Imagine a community where young ladies stood in amazement when they saw a lady driving a car. From their reaction, they were not expecting a lady to be behind the wheels, they believe driving is for men only. What would one tell these young ladies about taking up political roles at their local level? One might have to remove the cultural mental cobwebs through proper sensitization. 

Another challenge is societal prejudice. The society has limited the scope of educational and professional training accessible by women. Employers prefer to recruit and promote men in the corporate settings base on the assumption that women are less achievement oriented and are often distracted by domestic duties. This assumption is not only misleading but detrimental to our collective growth. It has been proven empirically that there are few, if any important differences between men and women that affect their job performance; but the corporate world has continued to interact with women base on this assumption. 

Also, lack of adequate education has hindered women from actively participating in local politics and governance. In most families in Nigeria, parents prefer to send their male children to school than female children. This has accounted for the level of illiteracy recorded among women, hence, a reasonable percentage of women remain uneducated and unexposed. 

Lastly, lack of adequate finance is a crucial hindrance to women political participation. Just as cost of governance is expensive in Nigeria, cost of winning election is more expensive. Females are no match to their male counterpart in terms of financial stability and strength. The factor responsible for this might be that of societal prejudice mentioned earlier. These barriers are surmountable. Only If the solutions proffered subsequently are implemented. 

2. What are the good practices that help advance women’s political participation and representation at the local level?

Women participation in politics is pivotal to the social, economic and democratic growth of any nation. That is why it pertinent to embrace all forms of positive measures that will stimulate as well as sustain women's interest in political participation. One of these ways is implementation of quota allotment reserved for women. The problem of making laws and not implementing them is affecting virtually all sectors and this has also fast-tracked underdevelopment for women in politics. It is important that percentages seats in government as recommended by different notable bodies be adopted and thoroughly implemented. 

In addition, to sustain women's participation in politics, there is the need for unparallel training and retraining with a unique innovative approach to impact knowledge and equip them with required resources for optimal productivity. With knowledge comes power and information for liberation; information cutting across all spheres of political participation, to motivate, support and encourage. This social sensitization should be extended to the general public as it would correct various stereotypic notions that could cause retrogression in women political participation. We @womeninpoliticsng have been caught in the web of encouraging and equipping women to participate in politics.

In the same vein, active grooming and mentoring will go a long way in advancing women political participation and representation. Proper coaching and orientation would birth attitudinal change in women and break them from the patriarchal shackles imposed by the society. Some women are definitely interested in contributing their quota of proper representation in governance but they need concrete escapism to stay above the social limitations. Therefore, a mentorship scheme would position them in the right perspective to achieving this feat. 

Finally, a collaborative effort, involving all major stakeholders in the political schematic of operations is a sure way out to attaining a desired level of women representation in politics. Socio-economic transformation can only get better if women are given and encouraged to take their rightful position in governance; all hands must be on deck. 

3. What is the role of political parties in supporting women’s engagement in local politics  Do you know of any programmes or structures that support women elected at the local level to become leaders at the national level? Please share examples.

In a country like Nigeria where independent candidacy is still a mirage, one has to contest for any political office under the banner of a political party; therefore, political parties are crucial to determining who to represent the party at the polls. Political parties can support women participation in politics by allocating a certain percentage of all elective offices to women. If possible, they might even go to the level of not conducting primaries for the women except there are more than one candidate for that particular office. (though this might not be in line with party constitution). Also, for women interested in politics, political parties should reduce the requirements especially financial requirements necessary to run for a particular elective office. This will encourage more women to participate and bring them to the decision - making table. Political parties should have gender equality motivated policies as it will drive their actions.

4. What can local government do to achieve gender equality and empower rural women and girls?

Grassroot politicking and mobilisation is one of the foundational principles of a true democracy. Since democracy is an all inclusive system, rural dwellers especially women must be incorporated into the decision making process for proper representation. Local Government Authorities have a strategic role to play in this regard as they are the closest to those in the grassroot. The Local Government must ensure a gender balanced atmosphere especially in its policy formulation and implementation. They must create a level playing ground that would facilitate gender equality. Their actions would speak to the sensibilities of local community occupants especially those that are still beclouded by the patriarchal domination. This should be accompanied by proper awareness of the women folks on the need to be more active and take the bull by the horn. The LGAs should also organise programmes that would transform the minds of the women and allocate more resources for girls education at the elementary and secondary level.

Posted on behalf of Kadidia Doumbia, Specialist in Gender and Education, DC Human Rights Liaison and former Grassroots Coordinating Committee co-chair for the Democratic Party in the Washington DC area.

1. What are the challenges that hinder women’s political participation and representation at the local governance and decision-making level? Are they any different from the challenges women face at the national level?

Women’s political participation and representation at the local governance and decision-making level are hindered by stereotypes of women who should be home and the men’s supremacy that refuses to give them a space.

In most societies, women are not invited to sit at the table even if their number in the political arena, has grown, for the past 20 years.

Many of the challenges come from within their own parties where they have been very active in helping with elections but have never been seen, as potential candidates; the voter’s perception of women politicians is another issue, people need to be educated and understand that a woman is as good as a man to conduct political affairs.

The attacks on their reputation often based on false assertions, by spreading anonymous rumors, force many women to withdraw from politics. 

2. What are the good practices that help advance women’s political participation and representation at the local level? What is the role political parties in supporting women’s engagement in local politics?

Women need to get organized and take ownership of their political engagement. Men will not do it for them. They need trainings, support by their peers and communities. Funding is also an issue. In the United States, for instance “ To successfully run for Congress, candidates spend an average of about $1.3 million for a seat in the House and $10.4 million for a Senate seat, according to the Center for Responsive Politics.”(https://www.teenvogue.com/story/big-thing-keeping-women-out-of-politics-money-running)

Political parties need to be honest with women candidates. It should be clear from the very beginning if they will support a woman or not. That said, based on the realities on the ground, women should work very hard on the ground to be accepted by the constituents and not wait for the party.

Women should be invited to sit at the table to discuss social and political issues that have an impact on the whole society or country. 

3. Do you know of any programmes or structures that support women elected at the local level to become leaders at the national level? Please share examples.

In the USA for instance, such organizations as Emerge, She Should Run, Vote Run Lead, Ready To Run are focusing on getting women ready to run or to support other women who run.

Many of them offer online trainings which is very convenient for women who can follow them from anywhere in the world. 

4. What can local government do to achieve gender equality and empower rural women and girls?

The first thing is to make education mandatory. Depending on the realities of every government the requirements may differ.

The second element is to emphasize the fact that women are citizens and have civil rights. It should be visible on the laws passed and how they are implemented and enforced.

Rural women need access to lands, to micro-finance and basic literary and financial education.

For all, the right to vote and to be heard.

Posted on behalf of Sifisosami Dube, Head of Programmes, Gender Links, South Africa. 

Gender Links is working with 430 local government councils to mainstream gender in service delivery. Using the Centres of Excellence programme, a 10 stage process involving council buy-in, action planning and sharing of best practices of gender mainstreaming in service delivery. We focus on gender focal persons and gender champions in the councils to spearhead gender equality at a local level. Our main framework is the SADC Gender Protocol which is aligned to international gender instruments and the Sustainable Development Goals.

Posted on behalf of Lynda Umeh, Entrepreneur in the ICT Sector in Nigeria.

1. What are the challenges that hinder women’s political participation and representation at the local governance and decision-making level? 

Most times women who are interested in politics are dissuaded by their male partners (husbands or close friends). They are often advised and told that they can’t withstand the pressure of local politics as it entails aggressive actions and sometimes down-right dirty mal and ill practices. Women are often threatened and most times ganged up against by men. These men often use fellow women to disgrace, unfriend and in most cases cut off all communication from them. When indeed a woman isn’t phased by all of the foregoing, a new wave of malice, defaming, maligning is activated; most times she isn’t carried along in matters that concern her pursuit for the office. I have been made aware of a case where a woman was asked to engage in adulterous actions if she wished to progress within the party and vie for any office, starting at the local level. Lack of education also plays a part, if she doesn’t know and is ill-equipped then she won’t be able to counter her opposition. The societal acute judgement is also a challenge as its believed that women should be 'seen and not heard’. 

Are they any different from the challenges women face at the national level? 

The case isn’t different at the national level, if anything, it is enhanced and emboldened.

2. What are the good practices that help advance women’s political participation and representation at the local level? 

Education. Awareness that its not a death sentence to desire to play a part in the councils that make decision that affect the society. A lot of motivational seminars and outreach programs to give women that support system required to pursue their dreams of joining the political arena. Again education! These programs and seminars will teach them and provide tools necessary to stand out amongst their male counterparts. Women should read more to expand their understanding of a whole lot more than their immediate environment. Engage in healthy debates to check knowledge or gaps. 

What is the role of political parties in supporting women’s engagement in local politics? 

Political parties need to de-stigmatize women who have the ambitions to join in today’s politics. They need to provide same platforms, information, materials and financial support these women need to succeed as much as their male counterparts. They should also desist from allocating ‘soft roles and responsibilities’ to women; they should give the women as much of the responsibilities and assignments needed to prepare them for higher positions like they give to the men.

3. Do you know of any programmes or structures that support women elected at the local level to become leaders at the national level? Please share examples. I am not aware of any. 

4. What can local government do to achieve gender equality and empower rural women and girls? 

Again education, equal treatment, coaching, mentoring, positioning, financial support. 

Posted on behalf of Racheal Namono, woman councillor (Local Council 5) in Makindye Division, Kampala, Uganda

Sustainable Development Goal 5 of the 2030 Agenda is about ending violence and discrimination against women and girls and making sure they have equal opportunities in all areas of life. Significantly, SDG 5 both calls for policies for women, and participation by women in political, economic and public life. In other words, the goal understands that gender equality and the empowerment of women are both a goal of, and a tool for, sustainable development.

The first task of local governments is to act as a model of best practice for our communities. As major employers and service providers, local governments can have a significant impact on women’s lives by using fair employment practices and ensuring non-discriminatory service provision to citizens.

Local governments are on the frontline of tackling violence and harmful practices against women in both the public and private spheres. Local policing and urban planning, particularly the creation and maintenance of public spaces, are essential tools in tackling violence against women. Local governments have an important role to play in identifying women and girls affected by violence and providing them with the appropriate support and services to escape it and rebuild their lives.

Women are significantly underrepresented in leadership positions at all levels of government in most countries. Local governments must take action to improve female representation in elected, administrative and appointed office at the highest levels in our own institutions. This can be achieved through a combination of anti-discrimination and positive action measures, and additional support through mentoring schemes, flexible working, and affordable childcare provision.

Local and regional governments have a duty to ensure women’s equal access to land and economic and natural resources. Local authorities can establish mechanisms to make it easier for women to obtain basic legal documents such as birth certificates, provide legal aid services that support women in exercising their rights, and guarantee women’s participation in land governance institutions and policy-making processes.

Local governments should fully mainstream a gender perspective into local legislation, urban planning and policy-making in order to tackle the multiple barriers to women’s empowerment. Only in this way will women and girls be able to play an equal role in the economic, social, political and cultural life of our cities.

"A world where power is shared equally by women and men will be a better world for all.”

Contribution posted on behalf of Margarita Alonzo, Deputy Chairwoman, TODOS Political Party, Guatemala.

Women's participation in local government, a perspective from Guatemala

1. What are the challenges that hinder women’s political participation and representation at the local governance and decision-making level? Are they any different from the challenges women face at the national level?

During the past 5 years I've been traveling across the country to build structures of the party, from local to national level and is always the same: during local assemblies women are the most active, organizing how to involve more and more people in politics but, when is the time for take a place in the board, they avoid it.  They have enthusiasm, great ideas but sadly most of them are not economic independent and have the theory that to become a political leader, you have to spend a lot of economic resources to maintain the structure.    There is a chain because if women don't take seats in local level, they are not designated to join structures at national level in political parties.  When it's elections time, legal structures at local and national levels are the places where the lists are made, and women are not involved in that decisions.  Not always is because of economic reasons, is because they have no access to information about how political system works or there are some political parties without internal democracy so, the decision making places are taken by a group and there is no place for women out of that groups.  From my perspective, access of information is the most critical fact for women political participation, in local or national level and there are too many causes: women in Guatemala still don't have access to education, language barriers (we have 23 different languages), and definitely gender stereotypes.  There is still a strong culture promoting women's role as housewives and even when more women are taking professional spaces, we have to be in charge of the house and if we have time and our "male" figure agrees (father or husband), we can participate in politics.   When a woman decides to get involved in politics is also victim of political violence because her life becomes public and will be judged not for her work, the way she looks, acts, and even with who she talks will be criticized. But there is a hope, against all odds there are a lot of women who decide to take the risk and participate in politics, facing challenges and step by step taking places at the local governments trying to help their communities. 

2. What are the good practices that help advance women’s political participation and representation at the local level? What is the role of political parties in supporting women’s engagement in local politics?

In our party we introduced the non-discrimination policies and we have a strong and huge legal structure.  If the political parties are not democratic, it's harder to talk about good practices to get a real women representation.  Guatemalan electoral law requires only 50 of 340 legal structures at local level.  When a party becomes more representative tries to have more legal structures as they can.  In our case, we are trying to reach 100 legal structures to guarantee that at least in the 30% of Guatemalan towns we will have democratic elected lists to run for local government.  Internal democratic practices and non discrimination policies, with strong capacity building programs for women leaders are our goal to reach more women elected in city councils for 2019 elections.  We already started with a pilot program with 4 of the electoral districts, our goal is start with the basics: more women making difference at local governments in order to, maybe in 2 or 3 elections increase considerably the number of women elected as Mayors. All processes take time, but with the support of a party who actually is trying to engage more women in politics we will get the dream.

3. Do you know of any programmes or structures that support women elected at the local level to become leaders at the national level? Please share examples.

Vital Voices organized a 2 days training with women elected after 2015 elections.  After that, I haven't heard about permanent training programs to support women elected.  In our case, as TODOS political party, we have training programs for women in politics but not specific for elected officers.

4. What can local government do to achieve gender equality and empower rural women and girls?

In Guatemala, the gender gap is huge in rural areas.  Because of cultural stereotypes women are not allowed to study.  Poverty is also determinant and the circle of lack of economic independence for women is the main barrier to keep them out of the places where decisions are taken.  So, local government should divide efforts in 2 areas: for little girls, to guarantee their access to education but also to minimal nutrition, and for women to help them with productive projects, giving them skills and tools to achieve the economic independence that they need. 

Contribution posted on behalf of Hon Mary Patricia Ouma, Homabay county, Kenya.

Challenges hindering women polical participation and representation.

1. Partriachy and Male dominance is the order of the day, and the phrase "woman place is in the kitchen", play a disastrous role during campaigns and elections, as gender roles take center stage.

2. Marriage is prerequisite and permission must be granted by the family and clan. Ironically, women are not born and bred where they are married unlike the men who have massive support from the kinsmen. Culturally girls are not allowed to seek elective positions in their homeland, for they do not belong there, especially among the luo tribe of Kenya.

3. Finance and Lack of financial muscle: Due to inequalities women earn less yet they are the bread winners ,and do not have savings. Banks cannot give women loans because they lack collateral, which are usually registered in the spouse name.

4. Political Parties nomination and exercises are biased and favour male candidates. Male dominance at its highest, with undercutting and purposely made chaotic to scare away the women candidates. Women are not able to pay nomination fee. Party dominance in different regions ,makes it impossible for women to vie through other parties.

5. Insecurity: Women risk loosing their lives for challenging "men's positions' in politics, most women do not turn out to vote during nominations because of Chao's.

2. Good practices that help advance women's political participation and representation are: Giving Equal Opportunity to both women and men to offer themselves for elections.. Political parties should ensure conducive environment for women to participate adequately during party nominations

Political parties should ensure fulfilment of the constitution during nominations, for Kenya, 2/3 gender rule.

3. None in Kenya that I know of

4. Gender mainstreaming should be applied as a policy in all elective and appointments in local government so that the potential of women in leadership can be enhanced.

Posted on behalf of Karma Dema, Project Coordinator at International IDEA, Bhutan

1. What are the challenges that hinder women’s political participation and representation at the local governance and decision-making level? Are they any different from the challenges women face at the national level?’

The under-representation of the Bhutanese women in all aspects of the Bhutanese democracy and electoral processes has been well documented by few research study in Bhutan. For Bhutanese women to participate meaningfully in local governance and decision-making level, there are many factors which hinder women political participation and representation. Traditionally leadership has been the male domain, hence women’s engagement in public life and politics has been limited. The main constraining factors are: lack of education and training, lack of functional literacy skills, limited involvement and skills of women in decision-making, low self-esteem and poor self-image and double or triple burden that women bear as housewives, mothers and income generators. As an aspiring candidate, all LG candidate must qualify the basic functional literacy test (FLT), they must pass that FLT that the Election Commission of Bhutan has set up for LG. Evidently, education and training affect function literacy skills, decision-making capacity, self-image and self-esteem.

The literacy rates in Bhutan for women are 60% in urban and 29% in rural areas against 80% in urban and 57% in rural areas for men. Thus the difference from the challenges that they face as opposed to national level, women at local level are less educated and lack training but at both level but whereas the double or triple burden as mothers and housewives in addition to their income generating work may leave less time for women to participate effectively from pursuing activities outside the house.

However at both levels i.e. national and local, the representation of women in the governance is very low. At present only 8.3% of the total number of seats in Parliament is represented by women, which is a decrease of 5.5% compared to 13.8% in 2008.  Likewise in the 2nd Local Government election, women representation is 11.6% which saw an increase from 6.9% in the first Local Government election, but there is huge gender gap.

The gender stereotypes and attitudes that women are less capable as leaders are deeply ingrained and pervasive that leadership and politics are seen as purely masculine activities that affect women representation at both national and local level.  In general women at both levels lack confidence and certainty in their own selves to come forward to take active part in the politics to stand as candidates. Further the existence of strong biases based on beliefs, roles and statuses arising from traditions, social and cultural norms propagated through the generations have discouraged women’s participation or even discouraged voting for women candidates.

According to the “Study on Determinants of Voter’s Choice and Women Participation in Elective Offices in the Kingdom of Bhutan”  conducted by Election Commission of Bhutan, the study has identified the following factors that continue to hinder women’s full participation in electoral politics.

• There is an aggravated perception of bias against women to actively involve and engage in the electoral arena.
• Women  are  much  less  likely  than  men  to  think  they  are  equally qualified to participate for the elective offices.
• Women are less likely to  receive support and encouragement from the  political  parties  and  their  families  to  stand  as  candidates  and contest in elections.
• Women  are  substantively  more  likely  than  men  to  perceive  the electoral  environment  as  highly  competitive  and  biased  against them. Women  are  more  likely  to  react  negatively  than  men  to  many aspects of electoral campaigns and politics  can be construed to be ‘dirty’ and ‘corrupt’.
• Women candidtes are less competitive, less confident, and more risk averse than men candidates.
• Women are still responsible for the majority of domestic responsibilities (double-triple burden).
• Women’s position in the Bhutanese society have been largely constrained by factors of social, cultural and economic natures.

2. What are the good practices that help advance women’s political participation and representation at the local level? What is the role of political parties in supporting women’s engagement in local politics?

In the Bhutanese context, the National Commission for Women and Children (NCWC) has been very actively taking the policy and advocacy on gender forward including their National Plan of Action to Promote Gender Equality in the Elected Office (NPAGEEO) which propagates for equal nomination of women at the Local Government, National Council and National Assembly level alongside Gender Quality Policy. Along with working at Policy level including advocacy and gender sensitization program, simultaneously capacity and skills building has to be provided to women aspirants and elected.              

CSOs such as Bhutan Network for Empowering Women (BNEW) has been assisting in capacity building programme. Organization such as DANIDA in the past and BNEW has been preparing women for functional literacy test, this has helped women get through functional literacy test which is “a mandatory ticket to be eligible as aspiring candidate”. Apart from that political leadership training and skills has been imparted by BNEW for potential women candidate has helped to increase potential women confidence and motivated women candidate vying for various position in the Local government.

BNEW has also been encouraging potential women candidates to stand as candidates in elections through guidance, mentoring, and trainings for competency and skills development to enable them to contest in elections on equal terms as the men candidates. Once elected, BNEW has provided platform for networking as well as guidance, exposure, building up their confidence, education and communication skills have been a significantly made huge difference at the same time resource are scarce since they depend on development funding partners. Hence such kind of initiative needs to be nurtured by the government.

Besides establishing crèche or day care centres in the communities can help relieve a working mother who is overloaded so that they have more time to engaging in position for local government. Tarayana Foundation is one of the civil society in Bhutan has set up six day-care centers in the rural areas. This needs to be scaled-up by the government since day care facilities and services can help women to participate in local government can candidate.

As far as the political parties are concerned in Bhutan, not all the registered political parties promote gender equality or uphold gender sensitive issues in their manifesto and few women hold key positions in the top making positions within the political parties. Yet the findings from the research on “Study on Determinants of Voter’s Choice and Women Participation in Elective Offices in the Kingdom of Bhutan” conducted in 2014,   reflect that the support of the political parties is one of the most important factors in introducing and enacting gender-related legislation.

3. Do you know of any programmes or structures that support women elected at the local level to become leaders at the national level? Please share examples.

There is no examples to share on this from Bhutan, since at the national level, the higher education qualification is required as compared to local level, and the ones who has higher education can participate at the national level, if competencies is there. But in future there is likely chances that local elected women can become leaders at the national level, as often remarked by the relevant stakeholder that the local government can be the platform or opportunity to become leaders at the national level.

4. What can local government do to achieve gender equality and empower rural women and girls?

• Enabling environment for women’s Empowerment can be created by the local government. The LG can be gender-sensitive budgeting. Apart from that the LG can organize gender sensitization as well as advocacy programmes at the micro level and besides support the elected female local position holders to achieve the developmental targets or to fulfil community expectations so that they can become role models.
• The local government can offer training for women who are interested in joining local governance which should be arranged on a sustained basis.
• Non-formal education can be given a priority by the local government.
• Day care centers can be established at the local government offices and at communities so that women are engage in her duties free from guilt and stigmas.
• There  needs  to  be  systemic  changes  to  educate,  and  change  the mindset of the Bhutanese people through the education system to encourage and foster greater acceptance of women’s equal social, economic and political statuses. Gender sensitive curricula can be imparted in the education system so that children are taught at the early age to be gender sensitive and gender aware.

Question 1 

Patriarchy and oppression. This a global problem worse scenario in African countries as women till today are still oppressed by traditional systems and beliefs

As we all know for centuries women has always been regarded as minors as a result women have delegated their decision powers to men. So in the local government women are always behind because of the past oppression and mindset that has been there for years, at the end local government is not effective enough unable to achieve its goal ast the people who supposed to be champions of effecting change are folding arms. This also happens at the national government. There are women in leadership and political active but is just a margin or just a fraction. 

Question 2

In South Africa Political Parties like the African National Congress the oldest African Liberation Movement have adopted 50/50 gender policy, that all sex must be represented equal at their executive structures. This also is not addressing the challenges complete but try to offet the matter. As you know global in terms of demographics women are the majority compared to men, but still men are dominant in this structures. If it happen are elected to top structures they just become additional members, not strategic position. This is a serious challenge in South Africa and the entire world. A case in Africa where a women was once a president Former president Ellen Johson Sirleaf led a clean, not corruptible governance, which is a problem in many African states where corruption is higher than service delivery. Her good leadership example proves that women are the future of sustainable leadership. 

Question 3

Yes Political parties in African countries have realised and seen the gap of women in politics and have formed political structures that supports women and youths. As all the structures are led by men and old people. The problem with the current members of parliament are old and tired to confront issues that can take local govrnment and national government to the upper level to be sustainable on the ground. 

Question 4 

Local government must recognise and be able  to appreciate that women are primary consumers of their services. Women have the capacity to lead and unite. Therefore at all times the leadership must encourage women to be incorporated in the development of government and ward committees. To be drivers of the economy and social change. Women must be given social and political education when times come to stand on their own when times comes to replace

Posted on behalf of Iruza Kakava, City Councilor in the Municipality of Zugdidi, Georgia.

1. What can local government do to achieve gender equality and empower rural women and girls?

The local government should invite women with the men at the meetings in the villages. At the meetings, the problems of women and girls will be revealed. In the process of development of programs and sub-programs, the local government should take into account the needs and demands of women and girls. Women and girls should be involved in the election process equally to identify their abilities and resources. The local government should present the leader and the competent women and the girls who have trusted the public at this time. The local authorities should support women and girls in the field of education, small businesses in order to strengthen and independently make decisions in life.

2. Do you know of any programmes or structures that support women elected at the local level to become leaders at the national level? Please share examples.

In Zugdidi Municipality there are NGOs working on strengthening women, employs training for gender equality, 1325 resolution, meetings with women working on decision-making positions. During the meeting I made a decision to vote in local elections and today I am a majoritarian MP.

3. What are the challenges that hinder women’s political participation and representation at the local governance and decision-making level? Are they any different from the challenges women face at the national level?

Local challenging women's challenges are family conditions, poverty and stereotypes.

4. What are the good practices that help advance women’s political participation and representation at the local level? What is the role of political parties in supporting women’s engagement in local politics?

The good practices that help advance women’s political participation and representation at the local level is to support from political parties.

Posted on behalf of Richard E. Banda, Malawi

Q1. You asked - what are the challenges that hinders women's participation and decision-making level? 

My thinking are as follows: Mostly the challenges are there and indeed that they are being hindered particularly when the constituency or ward is contesting men and women. Women are always intimidated, most of the times financial constraints can hinder them, lucky of capacity for women and other women jealous they don't support fellow women.

Q2. The good practice that can help women to advance political participation and representation at the local level there many:

There are small committees that are starting from the grassroots level like here in Malawi we've got VDCs at the grassroot we call village development committee when forming it we can as well put 50% of women 5men and 5women. That is an example.

In schools primary and secondary schools when choosing leaders put girls to lead. But like in Malawi 50/50 campaign comes during elections after elections it ends there (imagine how can this prosper)

The role of the political parties to support women is to engage them in high positions also and support them.

Q4. The governments should encourage 50/50 activities in all spheres.

Posted on behalf of Kunzang Lhamu, National Commission for Women and Children, Bhutan.

1. What are the challenges that hinder women’s political participation and representation at the local governance and decision-making level? Are they any different from the challenges women face at the national level?
In the 2nd Local Government (LG) elections, although women's representation saw an increase from 6.9% in the 1st LG elections to 11.6%, the gender gap is still huge especially at the Gewog Leader level (Gup) with only 2 females out of 205 Gups. The challenges faced by women aspirants at the LG level are many. After the first LG elections, the National Commission for Women and Children (NCWC) conducted a national study in 2012 to find out the constraining factors for women's political participation. These were mainly pertaining to female low levels of literacy and training, gender roles and stereotypes, gender neutral electoral process, low self-esteem and functional literacy requirements to qualify as candidates. Specifically, the constraining factors include:
- Double or triple burden;
- Attitudes and stereotypes;
- Patriarchial values:
- Self-image and self-esteem;
- Less involvement Decision Making;
- Socio-economic barriers;
- Election system and process;
- Lack of functional language skills;
- Low education and training; and
- Lack of an enabling environment for women's empowerment.
The issues faced by women at the national level are not too different from those faced by women at the LG level - however the situation related to education and training and functional language skills may be the only difference.

Between 2013 and 2017, several rounds of national consultations and two National Conferences on Women in Politics were held with the objective to consult and take stock of the opportunities and challenges faced by women in Bhutan and also to identify ways to enhance women's participation. As a result of the consultations, a Draft National Plan of Action to Promote Gender Equality in Elected Office (NPAPGEEO) was developed. While adopting a quota legislation remained a possible option, it was felt that a multidimensional approach should be adopted. This was to include reviewing and revising existing legislations and policies and also practices that deter women's participation and also the provision of support mechanisms.
The NPAPGEEO also recommended the drafting of a Gender Equality Policy which will ensure addressing of gender equality  gaps through various measures including temporary special measures. The draft Gender Equality Policy has been developed and will be put up to the GNHC and the Cabinet for approval after the last stakeholder consultations which will be held very soon. The NPAPGEEO consists of: PART A: Measures for creating a demand for women's participation at the nomination level at the Local Government, National Council and National Assembly elections; PART B: which emphasizes on putting in place interventions to ensure a consistent and adequate number of women participate in the elections. Interventions include creating awareness and providing the necessary support to create a level playing field by addressing gender differences. Such support systems and services include child care creches and provisions in elected offices, workshops and media programs, portraying women leaders as role models, identifying and training aspiring and potential women candidates, orientation and capacity building programs for elected women, etc.

2. What are the good practices that help advance women’s political participation and representation at the local level? What is the role of political parties in supporting women’s engagement in local politics?
The following are some of the good practices that helped advance women's political participation and representation at the LG Level:
- Awareness and sensitization programs: Preparation of potential women candidates for the Functional Literacy Test (FLT) - this activity was done in partnership between NCWC and the Institute of Management Studies with support from DANIDA;
- Leadership Training for women who passed the FLT: which included public speaking, campaigning and decision making;
- National Consultation of elected women leaders: to provide a platform for empowerment of elected women candidates at the local government level. The Department of Local Governance (DLG), NCWC with funding support from UN Women and Danish Institute for Parties and Democracies (DIPD) conducted the national consultation. Based on the recommendations of the workshop, a non-governmental organization, Bhutan Network for Empowering Women (BNEW) was formed which comprised of members including both elected women leaders and aspiring women leaders at the national and LG levels.
- BNEW in partnership with DLG and NCWC, has over the years actively kept the network of elected and aspiring women both at the LG and national levels alive through capacity building and awareness workshops, leadership training and media support mechanisms.
- The NCWC developed the Media Guidelines for gender sensitive reporting which also contributes to creating a positive image of  women in leadership and governance roles.
 - Sensitization of LG Functionaries on Gender Equality, Women's Empowerment and Women's Political Participation: The DLG and NCWC collaborated on a nationwide awareness program targeted at local functionaries.
- Initiative by the Election Commission of Bhutan (ECB):  Through implementing and supporting awareness creations and advocating for increased women's participation, providing equal access to training, generating and maintaining sex disaggregated data on all aspects of elections and gender training of ECB staff. ECB also widely disseminated awareness material like posters and audiovisuals on the importance of women's political participation. The bringing of FLT centre closer to the communities was another initiative to encourage participation of women who are unable to travel far distances due to the double or triple burden or other reasons.
Political parties support, encourage and raise awareness on women's political participation in the various campaigns and meetings that they hold at the LG levels.

3. Do you know of any programmes or structures that support women elected at the local level to become leaders at the national level? Please share examples.
I am not aware of any direct program, but I would think that the consistent awareness, capacity building and mentoring programs carried out by government and CSOs would groom LG  aspirants or elected women to participate at the national level.

4. What can local government do to achieve gender equality and empower rural women and girls?
The local government functionaries of today are much more open, sensitized and broader in their outlook and ideologies and they can support and promote women's participation in politics through constant encouragement, grooming and sharing of information.

They could also help shape perceptions and change mindsets of the rural population by advocating and portraying women leaders in a positive way. Creating a gender friendly and a conducive environment for women to participate in public life and also increase women's mobility through looking at their needs and creating services and facilities accordingly at the LG offices.